HOW WOMEN BECOME INTERESTED IN POLITICS
CASE OF JAPANESE WOMEN
Keywords:
Japanese women, non-profit organizations, civil society, political participation
Abstract
Women are politically underrepresented. This is true in Japan regardless of its political and economic standings suggesting that it is an industrialized democracy. While underrepresented in the political arena, Japanese women are fairly active in non- profit organizations. This paper explores the way in which women can be channeled into politics from civil society through organizational activities, I engaged in semi-structured interviews with 62 women from 41 non-profit organizations. I found that the relationship between organizations and the government was the key. The women in those organizations which have established a partnership with government were provided with the opportunity to enhance their self-efficacy by engaging in competitive selection processes and to dismantle the image of politics being contaminatedand negative by developing a personalized network with government officials and members in other organizations. They come to view their activities as being political and even consider running for office
References
Alford, John R., & Hibbing, John R. (1981). "Increased incumbency advantage in the House." JournalofPolitics,
43(4), 1042-1061.
Anheier, Heelmut K., & Seibel, Wolfgang (Eds.). (1990). The third sector: Comparative studiesofnonprofit organizations. New York: de Gruyter.
Auger, Deborah A. 2003. “The Government-Nonprofit Relationship Now.” In Stephen P. Osborne, ed.,The Voluntary and Nonprofit Sector in Japan: The Challenge of Change, London: Routledge.
Bardes, Barbara A., & Oldendick, Robert W. (2003). Public opinion: Measuring the American mind (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Berg, Bruce L. (2001). Qualitative research methods for the social sciences. Boston, MA: Allyn andBacon.
Burrell, Barbara C. (1994). A woman’s place is in the House: Campaigning for Congress in the Feminist era. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Cabinet Office of Japan. 2003. Heisei 15nendo Kokumin Seikatsu Hakusho. (White Paper onCitizen’s Lives 2005) Tokyo: the Cabinet Office.
. (2004). Heisei 16nendo Shimin Katudou Dantai Kihon Chousa. (2004 reportcivic activity groups.) Tokyo: the Cabinet Office.
. 2006. Heisei 18nendo Shimin Katsudou Dantai Kihon Chousa Houkokusho: TokuteiHieiri Katudou Houjin to Kan tono Paatonaashippu ni Kansuru Kihon Chousa (Report onNPO-hojin Government Partnership). Tokyo: Cabinet Office.
. (2011a). Josei no seisaku, houshin kettei sankaku joukyou shirabe. (Report on gender equality and women’s participation in decision making process). Tokyo: Cabinet Office. Retrieved fromhttp://www.gender.go.jp/research/kenkyu/sankak ujokyo/2010/pdf/zentai.pdfon January 27, 2014
. (2011b). Portal Website Database. Retrieved fromhttps://www.npo- homepage.go.jp/search/index.html on July 14, 2013
.
. (2012). Josei no seisaku, houshin kettei sankaku joukyou shirabe. (Report on gender equality and women's participation in decision making process). Tokyo: Cabinet Office.Retrieved from http://www.gender.go.jp/research/kenkyu/ratio/pdf/si ngi240930_h.pdf on January 27, 2014.
Campbell, John Creighton, Ikegami, Naoki. (2000). "Long-term care insurance come to Japan." Health Affairs, 19 (3):
26-39.
Carroll, Susan J. (1994). Women as candidates in American politics. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Carroll, Susan J. & Sanbonmatsu, Kira. (2013). More women can run: Gender and pathways to theState legislatures. New York: Oxford University Press.
Clary, E. Gil., Snyder, Mark., & Ridge, Robert D. (1992). "Volunteers’ motivations: A functional strategy for the recruitment, placement, and retention of volunteers." Nonprofit Management & Leadership, 2,333-350.
Clary, E. Gil, Snyder, Mark, & Stukas, Arthur A. (1996). "Volunteers’ motivations: Findings from a national survey." Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 25,
485-505.
Darcy, Robert, & Shramm, Sarah Salvin (1977). "When women run against men." Public Opinion Quarterly, 41(1), 1-12.
Darcy, Robert, Welch, Susan, & Clark, Janet (1985). "Women candidates in single-and multi-member districts: American state legislative races." Social Science Quarterly, 66, 945-53.
Duerst-Lahti, Georgia (1998). The bottleneck: Women as candidates. In Sue Thomas & Clyde Wilcox (Eds.), Women and Elective Office. (pp.15-25). New York: Oxford University Press.
Estevez-Abe, Margarita. 2003. “State-Society Partnerships in the Japanese Welfare State.” In Frank J. Schwartz and Susan J. Pharr, eds., The State of Civil Society in Japan. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Fox, Richard L. & Lawless, Jennifer L. (2004). "Entering the arena? Gender and the decision to run foroffice." American Journal of Political Science, 48 (2):264-280.
Fox, Richard L. Lawless, Jennifer L., & Feeley, Courtney (2001) "Gender and the decision to run for office." Legislative Studies Quarterly, 26(3), 411-435.
Freedom House. (2009). Freedom in the World. Retrieved from http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=363& year=2009 on September 3, 2011.
Gender Equality Bureau. (2012).International Institute for Human, Organization and Earth (2008) The Fourth report on NPO partnership environment in prefectures and major cities. Tokyo: IIHOE.
Inter-Parliamentary Union. (2010). Women in national parliaments. Retrieved fromhttp://www.ipu.org/wmn- e/classif.htm on July, 2013.
Jenkins, Craig. (1987). Nonprofit organizations and policy advocacy. In Walter W. Powell (Ed.). The nonprofit sector: A research handbook. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Kirkpatrick, Jeane. (1974). Political women. New York: Basic
Books.
Lawless, Jennifer, & Fox, Richard L. (2005). It takes a candidate: Why women don’t run for office. New York: Cambridge University Press.
LeBlanc, Robin M. (1999). Bicycle citizens: the political world of the Japanese housewife. Berkeley,CA: University of California Press.
Lowndes, Vivien. (2004). "Getting on or getting by? Women, social capital and political participation." British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 6, 45-64.
Matland, Richard E. (1998). Women’s representation in national legislatures: Developed and developing countries. Legislative Studies Quarterly, 23(1), 109-125.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan. (2007). Heisei 19nendogakkou kihon chousa (White paper on school system). Retrieved from
http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/toukei/001/08010901
/index.htm on July 14, 2013
National Institute of Population and Social Security Research. (2005). Dai 13kai shussei doukou kihon chousa: kekkon to shussan ni kansuru zenkoku chousa (The third national survey on family in Japan) (In Japanese). Retrieved from http://www.ipss.go.jp/psdoukou/j/doukou13_s/Nfs13d oukou_s.pdfon June 11, 2013.
Noguchi, Mary Goebel. (1992). "The rise of housewife activists." Japan Quarterly, 39(3), 339-352.
Rule, Wilma. (1987). "Electoral systems, contextual factors and
women’s opportunity for election to parliament in
twenty-three democracies." Western Political Quarterly,
40(3), 477-498
Salamon, Lester M. (1987). Partners in public service: The scope and theory of government-nonprofit
relations.” In Walter W. Powell (Ed.). The nonprofit
sector: A research handbook. New Haven, CT: Yale
University Press.
Sanbonmatsu, Kira. (2002). "Political parties and the recruitment of women to state legislatures." The Journal of Politics. 64(3). 791-809.
Simon, Rita J., & Ladis, Jean M. (1989). "A report: Women's and men's attitudes about a woman's place and role." Public Opinion Quarterly, 53(2),265-276.
Takeda, Hiroko. (2006). "Gendering the Japanese political system: The gender-specific pattern of political activity and women’s political participation." Japanese Studies,
26(2), 185-198.
Takeuchi, Hideko. 2004. “Chihou Giinno Jendaa Sai” (“Gender Gap in Members of Local Assemblies.” Gendai Shakai Kenkyu 7: 99-118.
Thomas, Sue (1998). Introduction. In Sue Thomas, & Clyde Wilcox (Eds.). Women in Elective Office:Past ,present, and future. (pp3-25). NewYork: Oxford University Press.
United Nations Statistics Division. (2008). Statistics and indicators on women and men. Retrieved from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/ind wm/tab5d.htmon July 14, 2013.
Vengroff, Richard, Nyiri, Zsolt, & Fugiero, Melissa. (2003). "Electoral system and gender representation in sub- national legislatures: Is there a national-sub-national gender gap?Political Research Quarterly, 56(2), 163-173.
Verba, Sidney, Kay Lehman Schlozman and Henry E. Brady.
1995. Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism and American Politics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Warr, Deborah J. (2006). "Gender, class, and the art and craft of social capital." The Sociological Quarterly, 47, 497-
520.
Weber, Max. 1946. From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, H.H.
Gerth, and C. Wright Mills (eds),York: Oxford University
Press.
43(4), 1042-1061.
Anheier, Heelmut K., & Seibel, Wolfgang (Eds.). (1990). The third sector: Comparative studiesofnonprofit organizations. New York: de Gruyter.
Auger, Deborah A. 2003. “The Government-Nonprofit Relationship Now.” In Stephen P. Osborne, ed.,The Voluntary and Nonprofit Sector in Japan: The Challenge of Change, London: Routledge.
Bardes, Barbara A., & Oldendick, Robert W. (2003). Public opinion: Measuring the American mind (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Berg, Bruce L. (2001). Qualitative research methods for the social sciences. Boston, MA: Allyn andBacon.
Burrell, Barbara C. (1994). A woman’s place is in the House: Campaigning for Congress in the Feminist era. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Cabinet Office of Japan. 2003. Heisei 15nendo Kokumin Seikatsu Hakusho. (White Paper onCitizen’s Lives 2005) Tokyo: the Cabinet Office.
. (2004). Heisei 16nendo Shimin Katudou Dantai Kihon Chousa. (2004 reportcivic activity groups.) Tokyo: the Cabinet Office.
. 2006. Heisei 18nendo Shimin Katsudou Dantai Kihon Chousa Houkokusho: TokuteiHieiri Katudou Houjin to Kan tono Paatonaashippu ni Kansuru Kihon Chousa (Report onNPO-hojin Government Partnership). Tokyo: Cabinet Office.
. (2011a). Josei no seisaku, houshin kettei sankaku joukyou shirabe. (Report on gender equality and women’s participation in decision making process). Tokyo: Cabinet Office. Retrieved fromhttp://www.gender.go.jp/research/kenkyu/sankak ujokyo/2010/pdf/zentai.pdfon January 27, 2014
. (2011b). Portal Website Database. Retrieved fromhttps://www.npo- homepage.go.jp/search/index.html on July 14, 2013
.
. (2012). Josei no seisaku, houshin kettei sankaku joukyou shirabe. (Report on gender equality and women's participation in decision making process). Tokyo: Cabinet Office.Retrieved from http://www.gender.go.jp/research/kenkyu/ratio/pdf/si ngi240930_h.pdf on January 27, 2014.
Campbell, John Creighton, Ikegami, Naoki. (2000). "Long-term care insurance come to Japan." Health Affairs, 19 (3):
26-39.
Carroll, Susan J. (1994). Women as candidates in American politics. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Carroll, Susan J. & Sanbonmatsu, Kira. (2013). More women can run: Gender and pathways to theState legislatures. New York: Oxford University Press.
Clary, E. Gil., Snyder, Mark., & Ridge, Robert D. (1992). "Volunteers’ motivations: A functional strategy for the recruitment, placement, and retention of volunteers." Nonprofit Management & Leadership, 2,333-350.
Clary, E. Gil, Snyder, Mark, & Stukas, Arthur A. (1996). "Volunteers’ motivations: Findings from a national survey." Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 25,
485-505.
Darcy, Robert, & Shramm, Sarah Salvin (1977). "When women run against men." Public Opinion Quarterly, 41(1), 1-12.
Darcy, Robert, Welch, Susan, & Clark, Janet (1985). "Women candidates in single-and multi-member districts: American state legislative races." Social Science Quarterly, 66, 945-53.
Duerst-Lahti, Georgia (1998). The bottleneck: Women as candidates. In Sue Thomas & Clyde Wilcox (Eds.), Women and Elective Office. (pp.15-25). New York: Oxford University Press.
Estevez-Abe, Margarita. 2003. “State-Society Partnerships in the Japanese Welfare State.” In Frank J. Schwartz and Susan J. Pharr, eds., The State of Civil Society in Japan. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Fox, Richard L. & Lawless, Jennifer L. (2004). "Entering the arena? Gender and the decision to run foroffice." American Journal of Political Science, 48 (2):264-280.
Fox, Richard L. Lawless, Jennifer L., & Feeley, Courtney (2001) "Gender and the decision to run for office." Legislative Studies Quarterly, 26(3), 411-435.
Freedom House. (2009). Freedom in the World. Retrieved from http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=363& year=2009 on September 3, 2011.
Gender Equality Bureau. (2012).International Institute for Human, Organization and Earth (2008) The Fourth report on NPO partnership environment in prefectures and major cities. Tokyo: IIHOE.
Inter-Parliamentary Union. (2010). Women in national parliaments. Retrieved fromhttp://www.ipu.org/wmn- e/classif.htm on July, 2013.
Jenkins, Craig. (1987). Nonprofit organizations and policy advocacy. In Walter W. Powell (Ed.). The nonprofit sector: A research handbook. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Kirkpatrick, Jeane. (1974). Political women. New York: Basic
Books.
Lawless, Jennifer, & Fox, Richard L. (2005). It takes a candidate: Why women don’t run for office. New York: Cambridge University Press.
LeBlanc, Robin M. (1999). Bicycle citizens: the political world of the Japanese housewife. Berkeley,CA: University of California Press.
Lowndes, Vivien. (2004). "Getting on or getting by? Women, social capital and political participation." British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 6, 45-64.
Matland, Richard E. (1998). Women’s representation in national legislatures: Developed and developing countries. Legislative Studies Quarterly, 23(1), 109-125.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan. (2007). Heisei 19nendogakkou kihon chousa (White paper on school system). Retrieved from
http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/toukei/001/08010901
/index.htm on July 14, 2013
National Institute of Population and Social Security Research. (2005). Dai 13kai shussei doukou kihon chousa: kekkon to shussan ni kansuru zenkoku chousa (The third national survey on family in Japan) (In Japanese). Retrieved from http://www.ipss.go.jp/psdoukou/j/doukou13_s/Nfs13d oukou_s.pdfon June 11, 2013.
Noguchi, Mary Goebel. (1992). "The rise of housewife activists." Japan Quarterly, 39(3), 339-352.
Rule, Wilma. (1987). "Electoral systems, contextual factors and
women’s opportunity for election to parliament in
twenty-three democracies." Western Political Quarterly,
40(3), 477-498
Salamon, Lester M. (1987). Partners in public service: The scope and theory of government-nonprofit
relations.” In Walter W. Powell (Ed.). The nonprofit
sector: A research handbook. New Haven, CT: Yale
University Press.
Sanbonmatsu, Kira. (2002). "Political parties and the recruitment of women to state legislatures." The Journal of Politics. 64(3). 791-809.
Simon, Rita J., & Ladis, Jean M. (1989). "A report: Women's and men's attitudes about a woman's place and role." Public Opinion Quarterly, 53(2),265-276.
Takeda, Hiroko. (2006). "Gendering the Japanese political system: The gender-specific pattern of political activity and women’s political participation." Japanese Studies,
26(2), 185-198.
Takeuchi, Hideko. 2004. “Chihou Giinno Jendaa Sai” (“Gender Gap in Members of Local Assemblies.” Gendai Shakai Kenkyu 7: 99-118.
Thomas, Sue (1998). Introduction. In Sue Thomas, & Clyde Wilcox (Eds.). Women in Elective Office:Past ,present, and future. (pp3-25). NewYork: Oxford University Press.
United Nations Statistics Division. (2008). Statistics and indicators on women and men. Retrieved from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/ind wm/tab5d.htmon July 14, 2013.
Vengroff, Richard, Nyiri, Zsolt, & Fugiero, Melissa. (2003). "Electoral system and gender representation in sub- national legislatures: Is there a national-sub-national gender gap?Political Research Quarterly, 56(2), 163-173.
Verba, Sidney, Kay Lehman Schlozman and Henry E. Brady.
1995. Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism and American Politics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Warr, Deborah J. (2006). "Gender, class, and the art and craft of social capital." The Sociological Quarterly, 47, 497-
520.
Weber, Max. 1946. From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, H.H.
Gerth, and C. Wright Mills (eds),York: Oxford University
Press.
Published
2018-07-26
How to Cite
Hanada, N. (2018). HOW WOMEN BECOME INTERESTED IN POLITICS. Jurnal Dinamika Global, 3(01), 3-40. https://doi.org/10.36859/jdg.v3i01.54
Section
Articles
Copyright Notice
The Authors submitting a manuscript do so on the understanding that if accepted for publication, copyright of the article shall be assigned to Jurnal Dinamika Global, Department of International Relations, Faculty of Social and Political Science, Universitas Jenderal Achmad Yani as publisher of the journal.
Copyright encompasses rights to reproduce and deliver the article in all form and media, including reprints, photographs, microfilms, and any other similar reproductions, as well as translations.
Jurnal Dinamika Global, Department of International Relations, Faculty of Social and Political Science, Universitas Jenderal Achmad Yani and the Editors make every effort to ensure that no wrong or misleading data, opinions or statements be published in the journal. In any way, the contents of the articles and advertisements published in Jurnal Dinamika Global are the sole and exclusive responsibility of their respective authors
